问题 问答题

西方微观经济学中的单个消费者的需求曲线向右下方倾斜的形状是根据什么理论得出来的你如何评价这个理论

答案

参考答案:基数效用论和序数效用论各自从对单个消费者行为的分析中,推导出了单个消费者的需求曲线向右下方倾斜。对基数效用论和序数效用论的评价如下:
(1)对基数效用论的简要评价
基数效用论大致流行于第二次世界大战以前,英国牛津大学的埃奇渥斯和剑桥大学的马歇尔都是其代表性人物。从专业技术上看,基数效用论被认为具有以下三大缺点:
①效用是一个主观的心理概念,从而它的大小是否能加以衡量构成一个难以解决的问题。
②效用既然是一个主观的心理概念,那么,不同人的效用之间的可比性构成一个更难以解决的问题。
③基数效用论的成立依赖于边际效用递减,而边际效用的递减又被认为是一种“先验”的规律,即不能加以证明而仅凭大家的经验和内省而认同的规律。这种脆弱的理论基础被认为是有损于基数效用论的科学性。不仅如此,边际效用递减还在意识形态上使资产阶级,特别是很富有的阶层处于不利的地位。因为,正如马歇尔指出的那样,货币(金钱)也必须服从边际效用递减的规律,既然如此,由于富人持有的货币量远大于穷人,所以前者的边际效用小于后者。如果把一元钱从富人转移到穷人手中,整个社会的效用(福利)便会增加。这样,边际效用的递减可以成为收入平均化的理论根据。
(2)对序数效用论的简要评价
鉴于基数效用论的上述三大缺点,在第二次世界大战以后,在希克斯的《价值与资本》的推动之下,序数效用论取代了基数效用论的地位,其理由是因为序数效用论能够不依赖于效用的可衡量性和边际效用的递减而推导出向右下方倾斜的需求曲线。实际上,序数效用论的这种优点仅仅是形式上的,它本身也存在着自己的缺点:
①无差异曲线表示可以给消费者带来相同满足程度的两种商品的各种组合。建立无差异曲线要有一个前提,消费者总是可以通过两种商品之间的替代来维持一定的满足程度。但事实上,人们的欲望具有不同的类别。不同类别的欲望要从不同类别的商品的消费中才能得到满足,而不同类别的商品是不能相互替代的。
②在对序数效用论的论述中,常用两种商品的组合来说明消费者的偏好和无差异曲线。然而,在现实的生活中,这种组合当然不限于两种商品,而应把社会上全部种类的商品包括在内。
③根据商品的边际替代率递减规律的假定,无差异曲线应该是凸向原点的,但现实并不能对这一假设作出保证。
④在序数效用论中,价格不进入效用函数,这显然违反事实。在一般的情况下,很少有消费者能撇开价格因素,而单独考虑商品效用的大小。只有不懂世故的幼童,根本不知道价格是怎么一回事,才会脱离价格而判别他对商品的喜爱程度。
总之,虽然序数效用论在形式上弥补了基数效用论的缺点,但是,它在实际上仍然是一个比较牵强的说法。

完形填空

Napoga is a 12-year-old girl in Ghana, Africa. It is hard for her family to get clean water. Every morning, she leaves home at half past five to get clean water for her family in a village far away. It takes her six hours to get enough clean water for daily cooking and drinking. She has no time to go to school or to play with her friends. Millions of people in the world are like Napoga. They can’t get enough clean water to keep healthy.

Earth Day is April 22. But on all other days, we must also remember it. The water we use is the most important natural resource on the earth.

Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface. But most of that is sea water. We can’t use it for very many things. Fresh water covers only 1% of the earth’s surface. You probably feel lucky that your life isn’t as hard as Napoga’s. But that doesn’t mean you don’t have to worry about water. We all face serious water problems. One of them is water pollution. All kinds of things from cars, factories, farms and homes make our rivers, lakes, and oceans dirty. Polluted water is very bad for people to drink. And dirty water is bad for fish, too. Now, 34% of all kinds of fish are dying out. How do cars and factories make our water dirty? First, they pollute the air. Then, when it rains, the rain water comes down and makes our drinking water dirty. Dirty rain called acid rain(酸雨), is also bad for plants, animals and buildings. Something must be done to prevent water form be­ing polluted.

Scientists say that in 30 years, more than half of the people in the world won’t have enough clean water. We have to learn how to save more water for ourselves and our children. Here is some advice for saving water:

●Turn off the water while you brush your teeth. You can save as much as 450 liters(升) each month.

●Leaky taps(漏水的龙头) waste a lot of water. Fix them right away!

●You can easily cut your 10-minute showers in half—and you’ll be just as clean.

●When you wash dishes, don’t let the water run.

●Only wash clothes when you have a lot to wash. If your washing machine isn’t full, you’re wasting water!

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