问题 名词解释

八旗制度

答案

参考答案:

清代满族一种军事、社会组织形式。努尔哈赤统一女真各部过程中,于明万历二十九年(1601)在原有牛录组织的基础上,初创黄、红、蓝、白四旗(旗皆纯色,后称正黄、正红、正蓝、正白)。四十三年,又增添镶黄、镶红、镶蓝、镶白四旗(旗色黄、蓝、白三旗镶红边,红旗镶白边),合为八旗(满语称“固山”)。每旗下辖甲喇(参领),每甲喇下辖五牛录(佐领),每牛录初为三百人。每旗所辖牛录的数目,以及牛录下的丁数,时有变化。凡八旗成员分别隶属于各牛录之下,平时从事生产,战时负戈从征。出征时,军械粮草自备。皇太极时,新降附的蒙古人和汉人增多,分别编入“八旗蒙古”和“八旗汉军”,与“八旗满洲”共同构成八旗组织的整体。入关后,于摄政王多尔衮死后,世祖福临收掌起所领之正白旗,于是称镶黄、正黄、正白三旗为“上三旗”,余称“下五旗”。

从清初起,满族统治者以大部分八旗兵丁屯驻北京附近,俗称“京旗”或“京旅”,而将期于部分分别派到全国各地若干重要城市和据点驻防。利用八旗兵丁加强对本民族和各族人民的控制,并规定发给八旗兵丁一定饷额,出征时坐饷之外还有行粮,但其生产只能日益缩小。作为军事组织,八旗兵和绿营兵共同构成清统治全国强有力的工具;作为行政机构,在东北地区,八旗各级署衙与州县地方官并存,直至清末。

八旗成员与州县所属“民人”,虽同受清统治阶级的统治和奴役,但又有所不同,在政治待遇上民人远低于旗人。清亡,八旗制度虽之全部瓦解。

单项选择题

Friday marks the 40th anniversary of one of the biggest, most expensive, most destructive social policy experiments in American history: The war on drugs. On the morning of June 17, 1971, President Richard Nixon, speaking from the Briefing Room of the White House, declared: "America’s public enemy No. 1 in the United States is drug abuse. In order to fight and defeat this enemy, it is necessary to wage a new, all-out offensive. I have asked the Congress to provide the legislative authority and the funds to fuel this kind of an offensive. This will be a worldwide offensive dealing with the problems of sources of supply, as well as Americans who may be stationed abroad, wherever they are in the world. "

So began a war that has waxed and waned, ,sputtered and sprinted, until it became an unmitigated disaster, an abomination of justice and a self-perpetuating, trillion-dollar economy of wasted human capital, ruined lives and decimated communities. Since 1971, more than 40 million arrests have been conducted for drug-related offenses. And no group has been more targeted and suffered more damage than the black community. As the American Civil Liberties Union pointed out last week, "The racial disparities are staggering: despite the fact that whites engage in drug offenses at a higher rate than African-Americans, African-Americans are incarcerated for drug offenses at a rate that is: 10 times greater than that of whites. "

An effort meant to save us from a form of moral decay became its own insidious brand of moral perversion-turning people who should have been patients into prisoners, criminalizing victimless behavior, targeting those whose first offense was entering the world wrapped in the wrong skin. It feeds our overwhelming thirst for punishment.

Last week, the Report of the Global Commission on Drug Policy, a 19-member commission that included Kofi Annan, a former U. N. secretary general, declared that: "The global war on drugs has failed, with devastating consequences for individuals and societies around the world. Fifty years after the initiation of the U.N. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and 40 years after President Nixon launched the U. S. government’s war on drugs, fundamental reforms in national and global drug control policies are urgently needed. "

The White House immediately shot back: no dice. The Obama administration presented a collection of statistics that compared current drug use and demand with the peak of the late 1970s, although a direct correlation between those declines and the drug war are highly debatable. In doing so, it completely sidestepped the human, economic and societal toll of the mass imprisonment of millions of Americans, many for simple possession.

No need to put a human face on 40 years of folly when you can wrap up its inefficacy in a patchwork quilt of self-serving statistics.

Those "wrapped in the wrong skin" (Para. 3) refer mainly to()

A. African-Americans

B. disguised drug-traffickers

C. wrongly targeted victims

D. occasional drug-takers

单项选择题 A1型题