问题 问答题

论述近代中国外交制度的演变,简要评析南京国民政府的改订新约运动。

答案

参考答案:1840年的鸦片战争是中国近代史的开端,它开启了中国社会由传统向近代的重要转型。就中国外交史而言,近代中国外交制度也经历了一个较长的演变过程。
鸦片战争前,清朝并无办理外交事务的专门机构,涉外事务由礼部和理藩院兼理。鸦片战争后,清政府先是派出“钦差大臣”处理有关对外交涉事宜,后来又设置了一个专门与洋人打交道的“五口通商大臣”。
第二次鸦片战争后,1861年,中国近代第一个以办理外交为主的机构—— * * 衙门成立。 * * 衙门设立之初,执掌外交大权,在清政府中央机构中具有举足轻重的地位。1901年,根据《辛丑条约》,外务部成立,其职掌与 * * 衙门相同。外务部较 * * 衙门更为完备和正规,列六部之首,足以表明外交机构在清朝中央政府地位的提升。1911年,清政府实行责任内阁制,外务部成为内阁中的一个部,原外务部职官名称取消,设大臣和副大臣主持部务。
1911年10月,清王朝灭亡。次年,中华民国临时政府成立,设外交部。
1928年10月,南京国民政府成立,新的国民政府实行五院制,外交部成为五院之一的行政院的一个部,这时的外交部已成为一个新型的、现代的外交机构了。
总之,近代中国外交制度的演变,一方面,反映了中国逐渐由一个主权国家变成由列强任意宰割的半殖民地国家的历史进程;另一方面,也展示了中国开始从封建保守中走出来,在借鉴和吸收西方先进文化的过程中,逐渐走上了一条坎坷的近代化道路。
改订新约运动:是南京国民政府整顿财政的重要措施,也是南京国民政府顺从帝国主义的重要体现,是一次软弱的外交活动。1928年6月,南京国民政府正式发起。改订新约运动只是在承认不平等条约的前提下进行若干条款的修订,其内容仅限于关税自主和废除领事裁判权两项。

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For more than two centuries, American’s colleges and universities have been the backbone of the country’s progress. They have educated the technical, managerial, (1) and provided generation after generation of national leaders. Today educators from around the globe are turning to U. S. institutions of higher learning (2) . They are apt to find many reasons for the excellence of American universities, but (3) stand out as watersheds:
Education (4) : In 1862 Congress enacted the Land-Grant College Act, which essentially extended the opportunity of higher education (5) , including such disenfranchised groups as women and minorities. Each state was permitted to sell large tracts of (6) and use the proceeds to endow at least one public college.
(7) : Over the years, the decentralization and diversity of the America’s colleges and universities have promoted competition for students and resources. Competitive pressure first arose (8) . The academy’s impact really grew after World War II, when (9) commissioned by President Roosevelt argued that it was the federal government’s responsibility to (10) for basic research. Instead of being centralized in government laboratories, scientific research (11) in American universities and generated increasing investment. It also gave graduate students research opportunities and helped (12) far and wide, to the benefit of industry, medicine and society as a whole.
(13) : The end of the World War II saw passage of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944. The law, which provided for (14) for returning veterans, made an already democratic higher-education system accessible in ways that were (15) in Europe, opening the doors of the best universities to men and women who had (16) of going to college.
(17) : The creation of federal loan guarantees and subsidy programs, as well as outright grants for college students brought (18) to higher education and further helped to democratize access. Since its founding (19) , the Federal Family Education Loan Program has funded more than 74 million student loans worth more than (20) .