问题 问答题

Since the days of Aristotle, a search for universal principles has characterized the scientific enterprise. In some ways, this quest for commonalities defines science. Newton’s laws of motion and Darwinian evolution each bind a host of different phenomena into a single explicatory frame work.

(46) In physics, one approach takes this impulse for unification to its extreme, and seeks a theory of everything—a single generative equation for all we see. It is becoming less clear, however, that such a theory would be a simplification, given the dimensions and universes that it might entail, nonetheless, unification of sorts remains a major goal.

This tendency in the natural sciences has long been evident in the social sciences too. (47) Here, Darwinism seems to offer justification for it all humans share common origins it seems reasonable to suppose that cultural diversity could also be traced to more constrained beginnings. Just as the bewildering variety of human courtship rituals might all be considered forms of sexual selection, perhaps the world’s languages, music, social and religious customs and even history are governed by universal features. (48) To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arose and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.

That, at least, is the hope. But a comparative study of linguistic traits published online today supplies a reality check. Russell Gray at the University of Auckland and his colleagues consider the evolution of grammars in the light of two previous attempts to find universality in ’language.

The most famous of these efforts was initiated by Noam Chomsky, who suggested that humans are born with an innate language—acquisition capacity that dictates a universal grammar. A few generative rules are then sufficient to unfold the entire fundamental structure of a language, which is why children can learn it so quickly.

(49) The second, by Joshua Greenberg, takes a more empirical approach to universality identifying traits (particularly in word order) shared by many language which are considered to represent biases that result from ~nitive constraints

Gray and his colleagues have put them to the test by examining four family trees that between them represent more than 2,000 languages. (50) Chomsky’s grammar should show patterns of language change that are independent of the family tree or the pathway tracked through it. Whereas Greenbergian universality predicts p co-dependencies between narticular types of word-order relations.Neither of these patterns is borne out by the analysis, suggesting that the structures of the languages are lire age-specific and not governed by universals

(50) Chomsky’s grammar should show patterns of language change that are independent of the family tree or the pathway tracked through it. Whereas Greenbergian universality predicts p co-dependencies between narticular types of word-order relations

答案

参考答案:

乔姆斯基的语法应该表现了语言改变的模式,该模式是独立于家谱也独立于贯穿家谱的路径,而格林伯根的统一性理论则预言了不同种语序关系之间的强烈的相互依存性。

单项选择题
问答题 案例分析题

某堤防工程,发包人与承包人依据《水利水电工程标准施工招标条件》(2009年版)签订了施工承包合同,合同中的项目包括土方填筑和砌石护坡,其中土方填筑200万m³,单价为10元/m³;砌石10万m³,单价为40元/m³。

(1)合同中的有关情况为:

①合同开工日期为9月20日。

②工程量清单中单项工程量的变化超过20%按变更处理。

③发包人指定的采石场距工程现场1Okm,开采条件可满足正常施工强度500m³/天的需要。

④工程施工计划为先填筑,填筑全部完成后再进行砌石施工。

⑤合同约定每年10月1日至3日为休息日,承包人不得安排施工。

(2)在合同执行过程中:

①在土方施工中,由于以下原因引起停工:

事件1:合同规定发包人移交施工场地的时间为当年10月3日,由于发包人原因,实际移交时间延误到10月8日晚。

事件2:10月6日至15日因不可抗力事件,工程全部暂停施工。

事件3:10月28日至11月2日,承包人的施工设备发生故障,主体施工发生施工暂停。承包人设备停产一天的损失为1万元,人工费需8000元。

②土方填筑实际完成300万m³,经合同双方协商,对超过合同规定百分比的工程

量,单价增加了3元/m³;土方填筑工程量的增加未延长填筑作业天数。

③工程施工中,承包人在发包人指定的采石场地开采了5万m³后,该采石场再无石材可采。监理人指示承包人自行寻找采石场。承包人另寻采石场发生合理费用支出5000元。新采石场距工程现场30km,石料运输运距每增加1km,运费增加1元/m³。采石场变更后,由于运距增加,运输能力有限,每天只能运输400m³,监理人同意延长工期。采石场变更后,造成施工设备利用率不足并延长工作天数,合同双方协商从使用新料场开始,按照2000元/天补偿承包人的损失。

④工程延期中,承包人管理费、保险费、保函费等损失为5000元/天。

试分析确定承包人应获准的工程延期天数?